As a result of heightened requirements for quality,integrity and reliability of electronic products,the role of wafer auditing
and nondestructive testing of printed circuit boards and electronic assemblies has grown at an unprecedented rate.
Nondestructive testing improves a product’s performance,increases quality and reliability,and lowers return rate. It is
estimated that the cost of a failure decreases by a factor of ten when the error is identified in the course of production instead
of in the field. Optical and x-ray cameras have become the most efficient and reliable tools for nondestructive testing.
Time delay integration (TDI) method of imaging is based on the concept of accumulation of multiple exposures of the same
object. The primary advantage of this method compared to the conventional line-scan method is the possibility of detecting
low exposure levels with a superior signal-to-noise ratio when high spatial resolution is required.
In the semiconductor industry,TDI-based instruments are used for wafer and reticle inspections where ultraviolet (UV) and
deep ultraviolet (DUV) instruments are mandated by defect detection requirements. In the electronics industry,TDI-based
instruments can be efficiently used for high-speed automated optical inspection (AOI) of high-density electronic assemblies
where dimensions of components populated on the PCB (printed circuit board) become smaller,and spacing between the
components becomes narrower.
X-ray TDI cameras are a critical part of the automated x-ray inspection (AXI) systems used for inspection of multilayer
printed circuit boards and circuit card assemblies with BGA (ball grid array) and other SMT (surface-mount technology)
components. High-resolution x-ray TDI cameras allow efficient inspection of the printed pattern,wire bonding,quality of
soldering of BGA components,and other elements of a PCB structure and circuit assembly.

Signal integrity analysis has shown that printed circuit board (PCB) insertion loss is a key factor affecting high
speed channel performance. Determining and controlling PCB insertion loss have thus become critical production
requirements for achieving multi-gigabit per second data rates. The traditional laboratory method of measuring PCB
insertion loss is difficult to adopt in high volume manufacturing (HVM) environments because it requires expensive
equipment while providing very slow throughput times. In this study we assessed the feasibility of implementing a
simpler and lower cost process to measure insertion loss. Through the use of a new metrology developed by Intel
engineers,we demonstrated it is capable of quickly and accurately measuring PCB insertion loss and is suitable for
use in an HVM environment. Applying this method to a first time study of insertion loss variation in HVM,we
measured lot to lot loss variation to be ~±0.05 Decibels (dB)/inch at 4GHz.

Trace impedances are specified and controlled on PCBs as their nominal impedance value and variations are key factors in establishing
system I/O bus performance. PCB trace impedances are evaluated and controlled during manufacturing using impedance coupon
structures. An issue critical to many high performance I/O busses is that the actual bus impedance is shifted and the intra-bus variation
is larger than measured using the impedance coupons,leading to PCB motherboards being Out of Specification. Recent work has
shown that shifts in measured impedances across a PCB layer is correlated to localized changes in copper density within the PCB
fabrication panel due to both the motherboard design and the PCB manufacture’s selection of fill pattern and impedance coupon
location. Managing the copper density across the fabrication panel through proper coupon design,placement,and copper fill pattern
selection is required to minimize impedance shifts between coupons and product. This paper highlights the impact of copper density on
PCB trace impedances and provides a BKM (Best Known Method) for managing copper density and designing impedance coupons to
minimize impedance shifts and variations that otherwise could lead to Out of Specification impedances on PCB motherboards.

The SMT print process is now very mature and well understood. However as consumers continually push for new electronic
products,with increased functionality and smaller form factor,the boundaries of the whole assembly process are continually
being challenged.
Miniaturisation raises a number of issues for the stencil printing process. How small can we print? What are the tightest
pitches? Can we print small deposits next too large for high mix technology assemblies? How closely can we place
components for high density products? …And then on top of this,how can we satisfy some of the cost pressures through the
whole supply chain and improve yield in the production process!
Today we are operating close to the limits of the stencil printing process. The area ratio rule (the relationship between stencil
aperture opening and aperture surface area) fundamentally dictates what can and cannot be achieved in a print process. For
next generation components and assembly processes these established rules need to be broken!
New stencil printing techniques are becoming available which address some of these challenges. Active squeegees have been
shown to push area ratio limits to new boundaries,permitting printing for next generation 0.3CSP technology. Results also
indicate there are potential yield benefits for today’s leading edge components as well.
Stencil coatings are also showing promise. In tests performed to date it is becoming apparent that certain coatings can provide
higher yield processing by extending the number of prints that can be performed in-between stencil cleans during a print
process.
Preliminary test results relating to the stencil coating technology and how they impact miniaturisation and high yield
processing will be presented.

Many articles have been published indicating that 60 to 75% of all board assembly problems stem from solder paste printing. The important outcome from the printing process is to get the correct amount of solder deposited in the right place. A significant part of that solution is the stencil and its correctness depends on how well its manufacturing process is controlled using proper machines,materials,methods and manpower.
The quality of the stencil can be measured a number of ways: smoothness of the cut wall,material quality,thickness and thickness uniformity of the material,proper aperture location,proper aperture size. This report will show that significant variability exists in aperture size precision between various stencil manufacturing sources.

Many of the latest SMT assemblies for hand held devices like cell phones present a challenge to process and manufacturing engineers with the introduction of miniature components such as .3 mm CSP and uBGA devices as well as 0201 and 01005 chip component devices. Printing these miniature devices along with more conventional SMT devices like .5mm QFP’s and 0603 and 0805 passives,in addition to RF shields is a challenge. Whereas a 4mil (100 micron) or 5 mil (125 micron) thick stencil provides good paste transfer for the normal SMT devices,stencils with this thickness have very low Area Ratios for the miniature devices. For example a .3mm CSP with a 7.5 mil (190 micron) has a .47 Area Ratio for a 4 mil thick stencil.
This paper will examine stencil technologies (including Laser and Electroform),Aperture Wall coatings (including Nickel-Teflon coatings and Nano-coatings),and how these parameters influence paste transfer for miniature devices with Area Ratios less than the standard recommended lower limit of .5. A matrix of print tests will be utilized to compare paste transfer and measure the effectiveness of the different stencil configurations. Area Ratios ranging from .32 to .68 will be investigated.

The reliability,as tested by thermal cycling,of printed wire boards (PWB) are established by three variables; copper quality,material robustness and design. The copper quality was most influential and could be evaluated pretty accurately by microsectioning methods to determine the general quality of the board. Next in the hierarchy of influence came the robustness of material,and the tertiary influence was design. With the advent of Removal of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) causing lead to be removed from solder and the increase in thermal excursions for assembly and rework to 260C,materials tend to be as much a problem as copper quality in the robustness of PWBs. At the new lead free assembly temperatures the materials tend to break down adding to the failure modes caused by lead free assembly. Both the copper quality and material robustness are improving and now PWB designs are beginning to become more influential in the ability to provide a robust board in a lead-free environment. In this paper we will review the general trends in design like the use of non-functional pads,or nickel as part of the surface finish and rank the overall robustness of each.

Working through the New Product Introduction (NPI) flow between the product design and manufacturing is usually a challenging process,with both parties being experts in their own fields and inextricably linked in the flow of getting a new,differentiated product from an idea into physical,profitable reality. Suggestions intended to reduce costs and improve time-to-market are often met with reluctance due to an inability to effectively communicate between these diverse technology cultures.
PCB systems design follows basic or generic manufacturing rules,but still,the manufacturer will find many issues or “opportunities to improve” in each design. Any one of these opportunities can be result in significant cost savings; a small correction up-stream can result in a huge saving when scaled by the volume of manufacturing. The cost of the design alteration “spin” however is also high and potentially delays the product release.
Another factor is the quality of information passed to the manufacturer from the designers. In most cases this is,for example,basic Gerber data format,which must be reverse-engineered,introducing potential for errors and variation. Time needed to reverse-engineer the data results in the reported opportunities to improve often coming too late and less effective than they could be.
A breakthrough,practical methodology to represent and communicate manufacturer’s needs,capabilities,and preferences upstream to the design process would reduce or eliminate the need for respins. Conversely,going down-stream,the manufacturer wants all of the information required to set and prepare processes without reverse engineering.
This paper explores manufacturing needs,and benefits to both design and manufacturing as well as the benefits of efficient transfer of key information from design into manufacturing,eliminating reverse engineering. Together these define a new paradigm for Design to Manufacturing.

A great deal of work has already been done to determine the equilibrium temperature of a PCB when exposed to a heat source such as the thermal environment of reflow soldering. This study will go beyond an equilibrium condition and explore the temperature-time distribution of the board when a variable temperature heat source is applied to both outer surfaces. For simplicity,the model will be a two-sided board. Obviously,the model board has two material interfaces. An interesting observation is that anywhere within the board,including the material interface,thermal energy must be conserved. There is not a similar requirement for the temperature. Consequently,at the material interfaces we can expect the thermal properties’ of the board to change in a profound manner. A similar situation occurs when a fluid passes through a shock wave. This will be reflected in such board properties as the thermal stresses in the various layers and the resulting warp. This phenomenon also explains and quantifies why a thermal shock can be devastating while a slow temperature rise to the same endpoint may well be tolerated.
The analysis will use a one dimensional,time dependent model i.e. there are two independent variables. This necessitates a partial differential equation to describe the temperature variation within the board. The boundary conditions are the outer temperature of the board,which is the temperature of the heat source on both outer surfaces. The third boundary condition is at the copper epoxy interface where conservation of thermal energy is required.

A joint project between Flextronics Inc. and North Star Imaging Inc. is being conducted to correlate current x-ray imaging and cross-section analysis of BGA voiding with state of the art high resolution CT-Scan imaging. Our primary objective is to validate the void measurements obtained from non-destructive imaging techniques,with the physically measured void measurements of cross sectioning. A secondary goal is to characterize void properties before and after reflow.
Typical AXI inspection equipment provides one to three horizontal planes of reference for BGA void measurements. CT Scan imaging provides a full 3D volumetric representation of the BGA void,allowing for size,volume,and void position data. Information that can be used in failure analysis and process characterization projects,without physical destruction of the printed circuit board.
Five 50.0 mm FCBGA devices and five 52.5mm FCBGA devices,with known voiding,are being used in the study. The voiding for each device has been measured on a 3D AXI machine (Figure 1),a2D off-axis high resolution x-ray machine (Figure 2),and CT-Scan system (Figure 3). The devices will then be placed and reflowed onto printed circuit boards. After reflow,all the voiding will be measured again using each piece of equipment. In addition,select voids will be cross-sectioned,polished,and measured using a high magnification digital microscope and correlated to the other x-ray imaging tools.